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Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications.

• 1Scientific
• 2Military
  • 2.6Firearms
• 4Industrial and commercial

Scientific[edit]

In science, lasers are used in many ways, including:

• A wide variety of interferometric techniques
• Atmosphericremote sensing
• Investigating nonlinear opticsphenomena
• Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques.
• Laser based lidar (LIght raDAR) technology has application in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics.
• Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission.^[1]
• In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes.

Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS.

The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder.^[2]

Spectroscopy[edit]

Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range of wavelengths. By careful design of the laser components, the purity of the laser light (measured as the 'linewidth') can be improved more than the purity of any other light source. This makes the laser a very useful source for spectroscopy. The high intensity of light that can be achieved in a small, well collimated beam can also be used to induce a nonlinear optical effect in a sample, which makes techniques such as Raman spectroscopy possible. Other spectroscopic techniques based on lasers can be used to make extremely sensitive detectors of various molecules, able to measure molecular concentrations in the parts-per-10¹² (ppt) level. Due to the high power densities achievable by lasers, beam-induced atomic emission is possible: this technique is termed Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS).

Heat treatment[edit]

Heat treating with lasers allows selective surface hardening against wear with little or no distortion of the component. Because this eliminates much part reworking that is currently done, the laser system's capital cost is recovered in a short time. An inert, absorbent coating for laser heat treatment has also been developed that eliminates the fumes generated by conventional paint coatings during the heat-treating process with CO2 laser beams.

One consideration crucial to the success of a heat treatment operation is control of the laser beam irradiance on the part surface. The optimal irradiance distribution is driven by the thermodynamics of the laser-material interaction and by the part geometry.

Typically, irradiances between 500-5000 W/cm^2 satisfy the thermodynamic constraints and allow the rapid surface heating and minimal total heat input required. For general heat treatment, a uniform square or rectangular beam is one of the best options. For some special applications or applications where the heat treatment is done on an edge or corner of the part, it may be better to have the irradiance decrease near the edge to prevent melting.

Weather[edit]

Research shows that scientists may one day be able to induce rain and lightning storms (as well as micro-manipulating some other weather phenomena) using high energy lasers. Such a breakthrough could potentially eradicate droughts, help alleviate weather related catastrophes, and allocate weather resources to areas in need.^[3][4]

Lunar laser ranging[edit]

When the Apollo astronauts visited the moon, they planted retroreflector arrays to make possible the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. Laser beams are focused through large telescopes on Earth aimed toward the arrays, and the time taken for the beam to be reflected back to Earth measured to determine the distance between the Earth and Moon with high accuracy.

Photochemistry[edit]

Some laser systems, through the process of mode locking, can produce extremely brief pulses of light - as short as picoseconds or femtoseconds (10⁻¹² - 10⁻¹⁵ seconds). Such pulses can be used to initiate and analyze chemical reactions, a technique known as photochemistry. The short pulses can be used to probe the process of the reaction at a very high temporal resolution, allowing the detection of short-lived intermediate molecules. This method is particularly useful in biochemistry, where it is used to analyse details of protein folding and function.

Armed Forces Laser Sight Module Manual Treadmill Manual

Laser scanner[edit]

Laser barcode scanners are ideal for applications that require high speed reading of linear codes or stacked symbols.

Laser cooling[edit]

A technique that has recent success is laser cooling. This involves atom trapping, a method where a number of atoms are confined in a specially shaped arrangement of electric and magnetic fields. Shining particular wavelengths of light at the ions or atoms slows them down, thus cooling them. As this process is continued, they all are slowed and have the same energy level, forming an unusual arrangement of matter known as a Bose–Einstein condensate.

Nuclear fusion[edit]

Some of the world's most powerful and complex arrangements of multiple lasers and optical amplifiers are used to produce extremely high intensity pulses of light of extremely short duration, e.g. laboratory for laser energetics, National Ignition Facility, GEKKO XII, Nike laser, Laser Mégajoule, HiPER. These pulses are arranged such that they impact pellets of tritium–deuterium simultaneously from all directions, hoping that the squeezing effect of the impacts will induce atomic fusion in the pellets. This technique, known as 'inertial confinement fusion', so far has not been able to achieve 'breakeven', that is, so far the fusion reaction generates less power than is used to power the lasers, but research continues.

Microscopy[edit]

Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths. Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization.

Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy^[5] and interferometric microscopy.^[6]

Military[edit]

Military uses of lasers include applications such as target designation and ranging, defensive countermeasures, communications and directed energy weapons.

Directly as an energy weapon[edit]

Directed energy weapons are being developed, such as Boeing's Airborne Laser which was constructed inside a Boeing 747. Designated the YAL-1, it was intended to kill short- and intermediate-range ballistic missiles in their boost phase.^[7]

Another example of direct use of a laser as a defensive weapon was researched for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, nicknamed 'Star Wars'), and its successor programs. This project would use ground-based or space-based laser systems to destroy incoming intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). The practical problems of using and aiming these systems were many; particularly the problem of destroying ICBMs at the most opportune moment, the boost phase just after launch. This would involve directing a laser through a large distance in the atmosphere, which, due to optical scattering and refraction, would bend and distort the laser beam, complicating the aiming of the laser and reducing its efficiency.

Another idea from the SDI project was the nuclear-pumped X-ray laser. This was essentially an orbiting atomic bomb, surrounded by laser media in the form of glass rods; when the bomb exploded, the rods would be bombarded with highly-energetic gamma-rayphotons, causing spontaneous and stimulated emission of X-ray photons in the atoms making up the rods. This would lead to optical amplification of the X-ray photons, producing an X-ray laser beam that would be minimally affected by atmospheric distortion and capable of destroying ICBMs in flight. The X-ray laser would be a strictly one-shot device, destroying itself on activation. Some initial tests of this concept were performed with underground nuclear testing; however, the results were not encouraging. Research into this approach to missile defense was discontinued after the SDI program was cancelled.

• Made by Northrop Grumman:
  • On March 18, 2009 Northrop Grumman announced that its engineers in Redondo Beach had successfully built and tested an electric laser capable of producing a 100-kilowatt ray of light, powerful enough to destroy cruise missiles, artillery, rockets and mortar rounds.^[8] An electric laser is theoretically capable, according to Brian Strickland, manager for the United States Army's Joint High Power Solid State Laser program, of being mounted in an aircraft, ship, or vehicle because it requires much less space for its supporting equipment than a chemical laser.^[9]
  • On April 6, 2011, the U.S. Navy successfully tested a laser gun, manufactured by Northrop Grumman, that was mounted on the former USS Paul F. Foster, which is currently used as the navy's test ship. When engaged during the test that occurred off the coast of Central California in the Pacific Ocean test range, the laser gun was documented as having 'a destructive effect on a high-speed cruising target', said Chief of Naval Research Admiral Nevin Carr.^[10]
• On 19 July 2010 an anti-aircraft laser described as the Laser Close-In Weapon System was unveiled at the Farnborough Airshow.^[11]
• Zeus laser weapon Is the first laser and the first energy weapon of any type to be used on a battlefield. It is used for neutralizing mines and unexploded ordnance.
• Area Defense Anti-Munitions (ADAM) Lockheed Martin experimental fiber laser. 10 kilowatt tested against rockets.^[12][13]
• Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser (MIRACL) A U.S. Navy experimental deuterium fluoride laser. Was tested against an Air Forcesatellite in 1997.
• In 2011, the U.S. Navy began to test the Maritime Laser Demonstrator (MLD), a laser for use aboard its warships.^[14][15] By 2013, the Navy was announcing active deployment in 2014.
• Personnel halting and stimulation response rifle (PHaSR) A non-lethal hand-held weapon developed by the United States Air Force^[16] Its purpose is to 'dazzle' or stun a target. It was developed by U.S. Air Force's Directed Energy Directorate.
• Pulsed Energy Projectile A laser designed for riot control. A laser pulse ablates material causing a shockwave which stuns the targeted individual. Likely truck-mounted.
• Tactical High Energy Laser (THEL) is a weaponized deuterium fluoride laser developed in a joint research project by Israel and the USA. It is designed to shoot down aircraft and missiles. See also National missile defense.
• Beriev A-60 A Soviet/Russian CO₂gas laser mounted on an Ilyushin Il-76MD transport.
• The Russian truck mounted Almaz HEL^[17]
• Boeing Laser Avenger Mounted on an AN/TWQ-1 Avenger combat vehicle.
• Airborne Laser, or Advanced Tactical Laser The U.S. Air Force's plan to mount a CO₂gas laser or COILchemical laser on a modified Boeing 747 to shoot down missiles.^[18][19]
• Portable Efficient Laser Testbed (PELT)^[20]
• Laser AirCraft CounterMeasures (ACCM)^{[citation needed]}
• Laser Weapon System (LAWS), which is intended to hold off approaching unmanned aerial vehicles and speedboats. Under development by the U.S. Navy. The system, which can burn through steel, reportedly costed $40 million and took six years to develop.^[21]
• High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System (HELLADS) A counter-RAM aircraft or truck mounted laser under development by General Atomics under a DARPA contract. 150 kilowatt goal. Uses a lasing medium immersed in an index matched coolant.
• See also Electrolaser#Examples of electrolasers.

Defensive countermeasures[edit]

Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems. IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on infrared homing missiles.

Disorientation[edit]

Some weapons simply use a laser to disorient a person. One such weapon is the ThalesGreen Laser Optical Warner.^[22]

Guidance[edit]

Laser guidance is a technique of guiding a missile or other projectile or vehicle to a target by means of a laser beam.

Target designator[edit]

Another military use of lasers is as a laser target designator. This is a low-power laser pointer used to indicate a target for a precision-guided munition, typically launched from an aircraft. The guided munition adjusts its flight-path to home in to the laser light reflected by the target, enabling a great precision in aiming. The beam of the laser target designator is set to a pulse rate that matches that set on the guided munition to ensure munitions strike their designated targets and do not follow other laser beams which may be in use in the area. The laser designator can be shone onto the target by an aircraft or nearby infantry. Lasers used for this purpose are usually infrared lasers, so the enemy cannot easily detect the guiding laser light.

Firearms[edit]

Laser sight[edit]

The laser has in most firearms applications been used as a tool to enhance the targeting of other weapon systems. For example, a laser sight is a small, usually visible-light laser placed on a handgun or a rifle and aligned to emit a beam parallel to the barrel. Since a laser beam has low divergence, the laser light appears as a small spot even at long distances; the user places the spot on the desired target and the barrel of the gun is aligned (but not necessarily allowing for bullet drop, windage, distance between the direction of the beam and the axis of the barrel, and the target mobility while the bullet travels).

Most laser sights use a red laser diode. Others use an infrared diode to produce a dot invisible to the naked human eye but detectable with night vision devices. The firearms adaptive target acquisition module LLM01 laser light module combines visible and infrared laser diodes. In the late 1990s, green diode pumped solid state laser (DPSS) laser sights (532 nm) became available. Modern laser sights are small and light enough for attachment to firearms.

In 2007, LaserMax, a company specializing in manufacturing lasers for military and police firearms, introduced the first mass-production green laser available for small arms.^[23] This laser mounts to the underside of a handgun or long arm on the accessory rail. The green laser is supposed to be more visible than the red laser in bright lighting conditions because, for the same wattage, green light appears brighter than red light.

Eye-targeted lasers[edit]

A non-lethal laser weapon was developed by the U.S. Air Force to temporarily impair an adversary's ability to fire a weapon or to otherwise threaten enemy forces. This unit illuminates an opponent with harmless low-power laser light and can have the effect of dazzling or disorienting the subject or causing them to flee. Several types of dazzlers are now available, and some have been used in combat.

There remains the possibility of using lasers to blind, since this requires such lower power levels, and is easily achievable in a man-portable unit. However, most nations regard the deliberate permanent blinding of the enemy as forbidden by the rules of war (see Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons). Although several nations have developed blinding laser weapons, such as China's ZM-87, none of these are believed to have made it past the prototype stage.

In addition to the applications that cross over with military applications, a widely known law enforcement use of lasers is for lidar to measure the speed of vehicles.

Holographic weapon sight[edit]

A holographic weapon sight uses a laser diode to illuminate a hologram of a reticle built into a flat glass optical window of the sight. The user looks through the optical window and sees a cross hair reticle image superimposed at a distance on the field of view.^[24]

Medical[edit]

• Cosmetic surgery (removing tattoos, scars, stretch marks, sunspots, wrinkles, birthmarks, and hairs): see laser hair removal. Laser types used in dermatology include ruby (694 nm), alexandrite (755 nm), pulsed diode array (810 nm), Nd:YAG (1064 nm), Ho:YAG (2090 nm), and Er:YAG (2940 nm).
• Eye surgery and refractive surgery
• Soft tissue surgery: CO₂, Er:YAG laser
• Laser scalpel (General surgery, gynecological, urology, laparoscopic)
• Photobiomodulation (i.e. laser therapy)
• 'No-Touch' removal of tumors, especially of the brain and spinal cord.
• Intelligent laser speckle classification for skin health assessments (especially regarding damage caused through ageing)
• In dentistry for caries removal, endodontic/periodontic procedures, tooth whitening, and oral surgery
• Burn and surgical scar management: scar contracture CO2 (especially the newer fractionated CO2 lasers), redness and itch (Pulsed Dye laser - PDL), post-inflammatory hyper-pigmentation (Q-switched lasers :Ruby, Alexandrite), burn scar unwanted hair growth and trapped hairs (Ruby, IPL and numerous hair removal lasers)

Industrial and commercial[edit]

Industrial laser applications can be divided into two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing.

In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial materials processing applications. Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts.^[25] Laser systems in the 50-300W range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications. Lasers above 300W are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications. The required brightness (as measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin metal welding.^[26] High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding, require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes.

Micro material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1 kilowatt.^[27] The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs.^[28]

A detailed list of industrial and commercial laser applications includes:

• Laser cladding, a surface engineering process applied to mechanical components for reconditioning, repair work or hardfacing
• Optical communications over optical fiber or in free space
• Guidance systems (e.g., ring laser gyroscopes)
• Laser rangefinder / surveying,
• Lidar / pollution monitoring,
• Laser engraving of printing plate
• Laser bonding of additive marking materials for decoration and identification,
• OLED display manufacturing
• Writing subtitles onto motion picture films.^[29]
• Power beaming, which is a possible solution to transfer energy to the climber of a Space elevator
• 3D laser scanners for accurate 3D measurement
• Laser line levels are used in surveying and construction. Lasers are also used for guidance for aircraft.
• Extensively in both consumer and industrial imaging equipment.
• In laser printers: gas and diode lasers play a key role in manufacturing high resolution printing plates and in image scanning equipment.
• Diode lasers are used as a lightswitch in industry, with a laser beam and a receiver which will switch on or off when the beam is interrupted, and because a laser can keep the light intensity over larger distances than a normal light, and is more precise than a normal light it can be used for product detection in automated production.
• Metrology - handheld and robotic laser systems for Aerospace, Automotive and Rail applications
• To store and retrieve data in optical discs, such as CDs and DVDs
• Blu-ray

Entertainment and recreation[edit]

• Laser lighting displays accompany many music concerts
• Laser harp: a musical instrument were the strings are replaced with laser beams
• As a light source for digital cinema projectors^[30]

Surveying and ranging[edit]

In surveying and construction, the laser level is affixed to a tripod, leveled and then spun to illuminate a horizontal plane. The laser beam projector employs a rotating head with a mirror for sweeping the laser beam about a vertical axis. If the mirror is not self-leveling, it is provided with visually readable level vials and manually adjustable screws for orienting the projector. A staff carried by the operator is equipped with a movable sensor, which can detect the laser beam and gives a signal when the sensor is in line with the beam (usually an audible beep). The position of the sensor on the graduated staff allows comparison of elevations between different points on the terrain.

A tower-mounted laser level is used in combination with a sensor on a wheel tractor-scraper in the process of land laser leveling to bring land (for example, an agricultural field) to near-flatness with a slight grade for drainage. The laser line level was invented in 1996 by Steve J. Orosz, Jr.[1] This type of level does not require a heavy motor to create the illusion of a line from a dot, rather, it uses a lens to transform the dot into a line.

Bird deterrent[edit]

Laser beams are used to disperse birds from agricultural land, industrial sites, rooftops and from airport runways. Birds tend to perceive the laser beam as a physical stick. By moving the laser beam towards the birds, they get scared and fly away. On the market are manual operated laser torches^[31] or automated robots^[32] to move the laser beam automatically.

Images[edit]

• Laser modules

• Q-line Laser

• Lasers were used in the 2005 Classical Spectacular concert

• A laser harp

• The surface of a test target is instantly vaporized and bursts into flame upon irradiation by a high power continuous wave carbon dioxide laser emitting tens of kilowatts of far infrared light. Note the operator is standing behind sheets of plexiglas, which is opaque in the far infrared.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Wills, Stewart. 'Cassini's Earthbound Partners'. Optics and Photonics News. The Optical Society. Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2018.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
2. ^W. Demtröder, Laser Spectroscopy, 3rd Ed. (Springer, 2009)
3. ^'California scientists able to control the weather using lasers - www.express.co.uk'. Archived from the original on 2018-10-23. Retrieved 2018-10-23.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
4. ^'The man who wants to control the weather with lasers - www.cnn.com'. Archived from the original on 2018-10-23. Retrieved 2018-10-23.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
5. ^Duarte FJ, ed. (2009). 'Chapter 9'. Tunable Laser Applications (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
6. ^Duarte FJ (2016). 'Tunable Laser Microscopy'. In Duarte FJ (ed.). Tunable Laser Applications (3rd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 315–328. ISBN9781482261066.
7. ^''Light Warfare'; by Matthew Swibel; 04.23.07;'. Forbes.com. Archived from the original on 2008-03-31. Retrieved 2011-09-25.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
8. ^'Joint High Power Solid-State Laser, Northrop Grumman Corporation, 2012'. northropgrumman.com. Archived from the original on 2013-01-30. Retrieved 2012-12-27.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
9. ^Pae, Peter, 'Northrop Advance Brings Era Of The Laser Gun Closer', Los Angeles Times, March 19, 2009., p. B2.
10. ^Northrop Grumman (2010-04-07). 'Navy Shows Off Powerful New Laser Weapon'. Foxnews.com. Archived from the original on 2011-08-08. Retrieved 2011-09-25.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
11. ^Emery, Daniel (2010-07-19). 'BBC News - Anti-aircraft laser unveiled at Farnborough Airshow'. Bbc.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2011-10-12. Retrieved 2011-09-25.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
12. ^'ATHENA Laser Weapon System Prototype'. Lockheed Martin. Archived from the original on 2012-12-01. Retrieved 2012-11-30.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
13. ^'Releases'. lockheedmartin.com. Archived from the original on 2012-12-01. Retrieved 2012-11-30.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
14. ^MLD Test Moves Navy a Step Closer to Lasers for Ship Self-DefenseArchived 2012-01-12 at the Wayback Machine, official press release, 4/8/11.
15. ^Navy tests laser gun by zapping motorboat off California coastArchived 2011-12-15 at the Wayback Machine, LA Times, 4/11/11.
16. ^United States Air Force link News story on the PHaSR handheld rifle-style weapon. 2 November 2005.
17. ^Carlo, Kopp, (12 May 2008). 'Russian / Soviet Point Defence Weapons'. ausairpower.net. Archived from the original on 15 July 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2013.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
18. ^Wired News article 'Weapons Freeze, Microwave Enemies'Archived 2006-06-14 at the Wayback Machine (and copied in at least 661 other web pages including this link) Archived June 14, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
19. ^Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser (ABL) Photos and PicturesArchived 2016-05-17 at the Portuguese Web Archive
20. ^'Home - Veterans Disability Guide'. www.milnet.com. Archived from the original on 2014-08-22. Retrieved 2011-11-30.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
21. ^Martinez, Luis (2013-04-09). 'Navy's New Laser Weapon Blasts Bad Guys From Air, Sea'. Yahoo!. Archived from the original on 2013-04-10. Retrieved 2013-04-09.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
22. ^'Thales GLOW'. Thalesgroup.com. Archived from the original on 2012-03-23. Retrieved 2011-09-25.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
23. ^Guns Holsters and Gear. 'LaserMax Introduces the UniMax Green Laser for Firearms'. Gunsholstersandgear.com. Archived from the original on 2011-10-03. Retrieved 2011-09-25.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
24. ^'Red Dot Sights / Reflex Sights & Holosights Explained'. ultimak.com. Archived from the original on 2012-12-27. Retrieved 2013-07-27.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
25. ^'The Worldwide Market for Lasers - Market Review and Forecast 2012'. Strategies Unlimited. 5th Edition: 56–85. January 2012.
26. ^Sparkes, M.; Gross, M.; Celotto, S.; Zhang, T.; O'Neil, W (2008). 'Practical and theoretical investigations into inert gas cutting of 304 stainless steel using a high brightness fiber laser'. Journal of Laser Applications (1042–346X): 59–67.
27. ^'The Worldwide Market for Lasers - Market Review and Forecast 2012'. Strategies Unlimited. 5th Edition: 86–110. January 2012.
28. ^'OLED technology explained'. OLED Info. OLED-info.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2012. Retrieved 17 October 2012.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
29. ^'Cinetyp Hollywood - film subtitles, video subtitles, DVD subtitles, film overlay, video, film, overlay, foreign subtitles, closed captioning, open captioning, spotting lists'. Cinetyp.com. Archived from the original on 2009-02-28. Retrieved 2009-10-11.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
30. ^'SM Cinema Adds Five More Christie 6P Laser Projectors'. www.christiedigital.com. Archived from the original on 2017-10-18. Retrieved 2016-11-16.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
31. ^'laser bird deterrent torches'. Birdcontrolgroup.com. Archived from the original on 2016-04-13. Retrieved 2016-04-28.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)
32. ^'automated laser bird deterrent robots'. Birdcontrolgroup.com. Archived from the original on 2016-05-04. Retrieved 2016-04-28.Cite uses deprecated parameter dead-url= (help)

External links[edit]